The 2025 European Business Guide by Country
Last updated November 2025
1. Why certified translation?
A certified translation is often required by authorities for formal documents in cross-border use. This can apply to certificates, diplomas and all kinds of document. For legal use, it can apply to business documents such as contracts.
But each country has its own rules and systems for certifying and registering a translator who is then authorized to certify a translation. Europe is a patchwork of different approaches, as is the wider world. How to navigate this?
The following is a country guide to the system in place for registering certified, sworn or court translators. It currently covers just Europe (for now) and comes with a checklist you can download.
2. What is certified translation?
A certified translation is one that is vouched for by a person with an authoritative understanding of the the languages involved. The translator signs a statement saying that the translation is a correct representation of the original. The translator takes responsibility for the accuracy of the translation.
This is not a quality issue. A translator who is officially authorized to certify a translation is not necessarily a better translator than one who is not. Indeed, an unauthorized specialist translator may be able to do a better job. The issue is not a linguistic one, but a legal one. It assigns responsibility and provides traceability in case of doubt.
To ensure the authority of the translator and the traceability of the statement, many governments maintain a system of ‘certified’, ‘sworn’ or ‘court’ translators. This is a register of translators kept by a ministry, a court or another authority.
To be accepted on a register, a translator must usually demonstrate professional competence in two languages and make an application. Often, there is an exam to be passed, the requirements vary from country to country. A successful candidate is registered, usually with an ID number, and has a unique identifying seal with which to stamp the translation page.
3. Why is certification needed?
Many public authorities or courts require certified translations. When a document is presented in a foreign language with a translation, the official dealing with a case cannot know if the translation is correct. Someone must take the legal responsibility for its accuracy. Such documents may be birth, death or marriage certificates, diplomas or letters of recommendation. They may be contracts, MoUs, invoices, tender materials, financial statements.
The need for certification is likely to increase. As AI tools become widespread in everyday use, there is a growing suspicion that a document may not be what it seems. AI is making falsification easier than ever before. Even with no bad intent, an AI translation may be wrong on critical points.
Although AI tools seem to understand things, all they really do is to predict which word will follow the previous one, based on the material they have been trained on. This can lead to “hallucinations” – false statements. In legal practice, they have cited non-existent court cases; in translation, they sound smooth and confident, but sometimes they are ludicrously wrong. Whether through intentional or naïve misuse of AI, the result can be embarrassing or costly. Businesses must be careful to avoid potentially expensive mistakes.
4. Certified translation, notarized document, apostille?
A certified translation is different from a notarized document. A notary is not a translator, and cannot vouch for an accurate translation. The notary records a document, authenticates that those signing it are the persons they say they are, and keeps a copy so that there is a permanent reference that prevents later unauthorized alterations.
An apostille is issued by the foreign ministry of any country that has signed the Hague Apostille Convention. It confirms that the original document is legitimate and authentic, and can be directly used in all countries that are convention members. An apostille is often used in conjunction with a certified translation.
5. Who may certify a translation?
This differs from country to country.
- Some countries have lists of sworn translators kept by a government authority like the justice ministry or a court. These translators may have to pass an exam, and are issued with an ID number which they use when certifying a translation, allowing the responsibility to be traced. They may have to swear an oath, which is why they are called ‘sworn’ translators.
- In some countries, a translators’ association may keep a list of translators whose work is accepted by government agencies or courts.
- In other countries any translator may be used. Here, there may be a requirement for all those working as translators to register with a government body.
- Some countries have no official system at all. In these countries, the recommendation may be to ask a lawyer to certify a document. The lawyer may do this in conjunction with a reliable known translator.
The system may not be formalized, the formalization may be incomplete or patchily enforced. Here, requirements may depend on the particular person within the authority that requests a certified translation.
Even in countries with a clear formal system, anomalies may occur. According to Serbian law, for example, any certified translator on the list of the Ministry of Justice may legally certify a translation – in theory. In practice, a local court requiring a certified translation may refuse one that is certified by anyone not registered locally in their area of jurisdiction.
6. Country-by-Country Requirements
The systems vary widely from country to country.
Europe is roughly divided into three regions:
- countries with a civil code,
- countries that were influenced by the Soviet union,
- common law countries.
Non-European countries are often influenced by the legal systems bequeathed by colonial powers. Thus, most of Latin America follows Spanish or Portuguese practice, Northern Africa French practice, Central Asia Russian practice, Australia and New Zealand British practice.
Many European countries have databases that are accessible online. In our checklist, he links are provided where they exist.
Below is a short table outlining a few typical examples.
7. Some typical examples
| Country | Certifying authority |
|---|---|
| France | Certified translators are accredited by a ‘Cour d’Appel’ (Court of Appeal) or the ‘Cour de Cassation’. A certified translator (traducteur assermenté) must pass an exam and be appointed by a court. You can access lists here (French only). |
| Germany | Germany is a federal country, and certified translators are accredited by state courts (Landgerichte). Translators must pass an exam to obtain certification. The Ministry of Justice has an online search facility here in German and English. |
| Poland | The regulation of sworn translators in Poland is governed by the Act on the Profession of Sworn Translator (Ustawa o zawodzie tłumacza przysięgłego), which outlines the requirements including qualifications, examinations, and ethical standards. Certified translators (tłumacze przysięgli) must pass an exam set by the Ministry of Justice and be registered in the official register. You can look it up online here (in Polish only). |
| Spain | Certified translators, (traductores jurados), must pass an official exam at the Spanish Ministry of Foreign Affairs (Ministerio de Asuntos Exteriores, Unión Europea y Cooperación), who keep a registry. You can access the register here (in Spanish and slow to open). |
| UK | In the UK there is no such thing as a sworn translator, and there is no government body that certifies translators. Certified translators can be accredited by professional organizations such as the Institute of Translation and Interpreting, ITI (here), or the Chartered Institute of Linguists, CIOL here. For many purposes, a lawyer’s statement is used. |
| Albania | The Ministry of Justice in Albania is responsible for the certification of sworn translators. Candidates need a degree in translation, linguistics, or a related field and must pass an exam. The ministry keeps a register, but it’s not accessible on their web site. Check with the ministry or a reliable translation agency. |
| Belarus | In Belarus the Ministry of Justice is responsible for certification and registration of sworn translators and maintains a registry. Translators need a degree in translation, linguistics, or a related field and must pass a certification exam. At the last attempt, the ministry’s web site was not responding. |
The pdf file available here sketches the systems in 42 European countries (latest edition).
8. Common Mistakes Businesses Make
- Using a non-certified translator where such exist and the document has critical sensitivity. For important documents, the issue is traceable responsibility. If things go wrong and you wind up in court, the use of a sworn translator may be seen as an element of due diligence.
- Using a sworn translator who does not fully understand the text. Like any others, sworn translators, have their specialities. A translator who is an expert in contract law may not fully understand medical issues or clinical trials. One who is used to translating technical documentation may not fully grasp the language of family law. A good translation agency will identify the most appropriate one. Halifax keeps lists of several hundred.
- Not verifying translator credentials. A responsible translation company will ensure the certification is provided by an authorized person. Make sure there is this element of traceability, and for high-stakes operations, check it with the issuing authority – nowadays it is easy for a fraudster to ask a chatbot to design an authorization.
- Make sure to know what you need for your business operation: certified, notarized, apostilled or other.
9. Approximate Costs
Like any translation, prices may depend on the language pair, the type of text, the urgency and other factors.
Non-certified translations are usually charged by the word or standard page (e.g. a page of 1,500 characters not including spaces). Certified translation may be charged this way, but may also be charged by the physical page. The latter often applies to certificates with little text, reflecting the concept – you are essentially paying not only for actual translation but more for the responsibility that can be argued in a court of law.
Some examples can give a rough indication of current (2025) prices:
- Geneva: CHF 3.50 – 8.00 per line of text.
- Italy: €20-35 per page (English)
- Spain: €25-35 per page (English, French, German); €35-45 per page (Chinese, Arabic)
- France: €25-80 per page
- Germany: €30-70 per page
- Serbia: €12.50 English – €34 Hebrew
10. Conclusion
When you do business abroad or deal with foreign authorities, make sure you know when a translation should or must be certified. Look at the certification regime in force, and identify an appropriate authorized translator to certify your translation. With the right advice, you can avoid potentially costly mistakes.
If you have any questions, contact us. We are always happy to respond.
office@halifax-translation.com